Freyja and the Lay of Hyndla:
What One Poem Can Reveal
By Patricia Lafayllve
Introduction
Freyja is one of the primary goddesses in what is known as the “Norse Pantheon,” a collection of myths and stories covering the Scandinavian and Germanic areas of Northern Europe. Scant evidence exists for her worship in continental Germany during the time known as the “Viking Age” (roughly 800-1100 CE); however, place names and literature show her dominance in Scandinavia, Norway, and Iceland during the same period. Little was written regarding her cult, and most scholars suggest her worship was actively suppressed by the Christians during the conversion period.
Fertility cults are notoriously difficult to stamp out, and the cult of Freyja was known even in the time of Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241). He remarked in his Ynglingasaga that “Freya kept up the sacrifices for she was the only one among the godheads who survived. Therefore she became the most famous. So that all women of rank came to be called by her name.1” A goddess whose mythologies and cult lived on throughout the conversion to Christianity to such a degree must have been vital to the minds of the average Scandinavian. But what do we know about her? If her cult was suppressed, as indeed it was, what records do we have?
An important part of any study of mythology is the literature available from the period. Fortunately, a great deal of writing has survived. Among the poetry, sagas, and folklore written down from the Viking Period is the so-called Poetic Edda, found within the Codex Regius, a manuscript dating to the 1270’s. Several of the poems included in the Poetic Edda are actually recorded elsewhere, and it is on one of these, The Lay of Hyndla (Hyndluljod), that this essay will focus. A careful study of this poem will reveal much of what is known about Freyja, and allow some conjecture into the practices of the heathens who lived in the Viking Age.
Examining old texts of any kind is challenging, and Old Norse texts are no exception. Spelling can vary, as can translations of the original text. The reader is therefore encouraged to research further on his/her own. The author has chosen to limit inconsistencies by using Anglicized versions of names throughout this text, with the exception of direct quotes from others. This has been done in an attempt to clarify the ideas being brought forth, and to make reading easier.
Part One: The Lay of Hyndla
The Lay of Hyndla is an often puzzling poem. The plot revolves around a conversation between Freyja, riding a boar, and Hyndla, an ettin (giant) she awakens. Freyja asks that Hyndla reveal the ancestry of her lover, Ottar, so that he can gain inheritance and win a wager. Hyndla reveals that Ottar has been transformed into the boar Freyja is riding, accuses Freyja of promiscuity, and then finally settles into reciting Ottar’s ancestral lineage. All of this is fairly straightforward, until Hyndla begins reciting what is known as the “Lesser Voluspa (Voluspa in skama, or “The Short Prophecy of the Seeress”2),” a series of visions she has revealing knowledge about the gods themselves. After insulting Freyja again, and attempting to curse Ottar, Hyndla goes back to sleep in her cave, surrounded by fire.
Taken on the surface, the Lay of Hyndla is about learning one’s ancestral line. This is a concept very important to the ancient Norse peoples, who practiced a form of ancestor worship. The importance of ancestors is underscored in the sagas, where the writers frequently break from the narrative to introduce a character, discussing (often at length) the character’s family line. The inclusion of the Lesser Voluspa (lines 29-44 of the Lay of Hyndla) seems strange, out of place. It is only by looking deeper into the poem and its symbology that the inclusion begins to be clearer.
Part Two: Freyja and the Lay of Hyndla
The Lay of Hyndla begins with Freyja calling out to Hyndla, bidding her to wake and come out and ride with her. Freyja is astride a boar, and she asks that Hyndla saddle her wolf. Freyja says: “Now it’s the darkest of darkness, we two shall ride to Valhall, to the sacred sanctuary.3” This is our first clue as to what is happening. Darkness and night belong to the “other world.” H.R. Ellis-Davidson points out that the road this story takes place on is called valsinni, the “road of the slain.4” Valhalla is well known as the hall in which warriors slain in battle go, and is governed by Odin, a god of the dead. Additionally, the format echoes what happens in Voluspa and again in Baldrs Draumar (“Baldr’s Dreams”) where Odin travels to the land of the dead and awakens a seeress (or volva) and commands her to speak. Thus, this tale is also a situation where a seeress is compelled to speak.
Presumably, not just anyone can compel the dead. We therefore have our first insight into Freyja – she must have command over the dead. This is borne out in the mythology of Freyja in other places. She has Folkvang (“army-plain”5), and a hall called Sessrumnir (“many-seated”), and we know from Grimnismal (Grimnir’s Sayings) that Freyja chooses one half of the battle slain every day “and half Odin owns.6” It is perhaps particularly relevant that she receives warriors who die in battle, for Ottar, her lover, must presumably also be a warrior. Further, Freyja is a goddess of battle as seen in Grimnir’s Sayings and also in the Tale of Hogni and Hedinn, when she must stir up battle in order to win back her stolen necklace, Brisingamen. In the Lay of Hyndla, our hints of Freyja as a battle goddess come mainly in the form she gives Ottar – the boar Hildsvini.
Hildsvini, or Hildisivin, translates to “battle-swine.” That this boar is Freyja’s mount is clear from the text – she refers to the boar as hers. It is well known that the deities forming the tribe of the Vanir are often represented by the boar – Freyja’s brother Freyr has one named Gullinbursti (“golden bristles”). Hildsvini has a second connotation, however – the word was often used as a kenning for “helmet.” The Anglo Saxon archeological site at Bentley Grange has a helmet with a boar on its crest – the boar’s bristles were picked out in gold.7 Freyja has several by-names, one of which is Syr, meaning “sow.” H. R. Ellis-Davidson points out: “The realm of blackness was the underworlds, and the boar could carry the goddess Freyja there when she wanted to gain special knowledge.8”
This brings us to our next important point about Freyja. She was known as a goddess of magic, specifically the form known as seidr. Seidr had certain hallmarks, one of which was traveling to the underworld, gaining information, and returning with it. Clearly this is what she is doing in the Lay of Hyndla. Although Kevin Crossley-Holland suggests that “no myth survives that displays Freyja as seer or volva9,” it is certain that she can command the volva, in this case Hyndla, when she chooses. This actually brings up one of the similarities between Freyja and Odin – both deities have this ability. It only stands to reason, considering Snorri Sturluson’s statement that Freyja taught seidr to Odin. In any event, one could make the argument that in the case of the Lay of Hyndla, Freyja herself is the volva, making the journey to the underworld, consulting Hyndla, then returning with the necessary information.
Spa, also spelled spae, specifically involved the gaining of information. In the Voluspa, then, what we have are the visions of a prophetess. Clearly, Hyndla is placed in the role of prophetess here. She is compelled to speak by Freyja. The ancestral lineage she recites devolves into the Lesser Voluspa, as discussed. What is key here is to realize that the seeress, Hyndla, can be assumed to be in the trance state of the volva. Thus, her prophecies begin to appear as she deepens her connection with Ottar’s ancestral lineage through recitation. While an examination of the Lesser Voluspa itself are beyond the scope of this essay, it is important to note its similarities in format to the Voluspa itself, particularly in its imagery but also in the phrase “it’s important that you know it, do you want to know more?10” Expressed in the Voluspa as “do you understand yet, or what more?11”, this phrase seems to be an important feature of the spa, wherein the seeress has a place to stop, should the listener be finished with her. The appearance of a similar phrase in both poems emphasizes the idea that a spa or seidr ritual of some kind is being undertaken.
Freyja’s connections with magic are clear from the Lay of Hyndla, and also help clear up some of the more puzzling points of the story. Freyja owns a cloak made of falcon feathers, which she can use to shape shift into a bird and fly. Here, she works the shape shifting on another being, Ottar. She transforms him into a boar and uses him to ride to the underworld. Folklore suggests that “this sort of ‘nightmare-riding’ is typical for witches throughout the Germanic worlds.12” In this practice, a witch would command the spirit of a person and while that person slept would “ride” the spirit in one form or another throughout the night. This gives us yet another clue as to what is happening – Freyja is using Ottar’s spirit as her mount.
At the close of the Lay of Hyndla, Hyndla attempts to curse Ottar, giving him a potion of remembrance so that he will recall what she has told him of his ancestry, and also saying “put this beer into Ottar’s hand, mixed with a great deal of poison and ill fortune.13” She does this after Freyja has surrounded her with a ring of fire to force the issue. Anderson, an early scholar, refers to this fire as “the breaking forth of the flaming aurora in the morning.14” while others suggest a similarity in style between this and the famous valkyrie of Volsungasaga, left sleeping in a ring of fire for displeasing Odin. The ability to command fire in this lay also shows that Freyja has an albeit tenuous connection with fire itself (she is more strongly correlated with the earth and the sea). Nevertheless, we finish with a final ability of Freyja’s, the ability to negate or remove curses. When Hyndla is finished cursing Ottar, Freyja’s rejoinder is that the words will come to no harm, and that Ottar is to be protected by the gods.
Part Three: Ottar and Freyja: The Connection
One may well wonder why a goddess chooses to intervene in the affairs of a mortal such as Ottar. He is referred to as “Ottar the foolish” by Hyndla several times throughout the lay. Here we must look at the overall world view of the Norse, specifically in reference to their beliefs and practices.
Hyndla refers to Ottar as Freyja’s lover and later insults Freyja with statements regarding her promiscuity. While Freyja is definitely known as a goddess of sex and love, and it would stand to reason that she would be free with her sexual favors, it is important to understand the difference in mindset between having a lover and being promiscuous to the Old Norse peoples. Generally speaking, there was no specific taboo against having a lover, or more than one. There is some evidence that kings had multiple wives, and certainly mistresses and slaves. However, adultery was severely punished, resulting in death for men and slavery for women.15 In short, having Ottar as a lover is something Freyja admits to, but when she is accused of being promiscuous, she responds by surrounding Hyndla with fire.
While it is true that one does favors for one’s lover, this is not the only reason Freyja acts, nor is it the primary cause. Freyja tells Hyndla: “He’s made an altar for me, faced with stone, now that stone has turned to glass; he’s reddened the new altar with ox blood, Ottar has always trusted in the Asynior.16” Blot, or blood offering, was a well documented form of worship in the Viking age and it is clear that Ottar has sacrificed an ox to get Freyja’s attention. There is more to it than this. He has made an altar to her. This tells us that men were a part of Freyja worship as well as women (although one might be temped to speculate that women formed the majority of her worshippers) and it tells us he is dedicated to her – so dedicated in fact that the heat from his sacrificial fires combined with the blood he has offered have turned the stone to glass. It is his very dedication that has earned him this gift from the goddess.
This is a key point. In the Havamal (the Sayings of the High One) we read: “Better not to pray, than to sacrifice too much, one gift always calls for another.17” This is also often translated as “a gift looks for a gift” or even “a gift looks for gain.” In the world of the Viking Age, much importance was placed on the giving of gifts. They cemented alliances, friendships, and built the community that was vital to the people of the time. The giving of a gift meant that, eventually, a gift would be given in return. This was seen to be a part of human relations, but it included the gods themselves. Giving gifts to the gods in the form of sacrifices is well documented, and one can only assume why such gifts were given. Certainly it was to give thanks for a prosperous season, winning a battle, returning home safely, etc. However, the implication was that the gods would eventually owe the gift-giver the same returns for which he had sacrifice. Thus in the case of Ottar, we see this theory at work. Ottar has sacrificed so much to the goddess that his altar has turned from stone to a glass like surface. He is, therefore, owed a boon, which she willingly grants. Naturally she does so on her own terms, and one could speculate that being ridden by the goddess might be very trying on Ottar’s spirit, but he gets his results.
Conclusion
No piece of work, literary or otherwise, exists in a vacuum. In order to fully understand the Lay of Hyndla, and Freyja’s specific role within it, we have had to examine the body of Norse poetry and saga references as a whole. Further, we have had to build an understanding of Norse culture at the time in an attempt to understand what the listeners of this poem originally would have thought of its words. We are looking back at a people with a rich cultural history. What is confusing for the modern reader was clear to the ancient hearer of the poem as it was recited.
By looking at the Lay of Hyndla, we have revealed several facts known about the goddess Freyja from other sources. We begin to see how her power manifested itself, and how the people of the time of her worship would have understood her. While this essay certainly operates at a basic level of reconstruction, we have looked at some of the underlying linguistics, and measured the actions of the lay against knowledge gleaned from other sources. Further study would have to include an examination of the Old Norse language itself in order to better understand the implications given by the words selected by the poem’s original author. Additionally, several pieces of information are related in this poem, particularly in the section known as the Lesser Voluspa, which are not seen elsewhere and might add depth of understanding to other prominent characters in Norse mythology including dwarves, gods, and even the descendents of the Ynglings, first kings of Sweden.
It was the intention of this author to examine Freyja within the context of the Lay of Hyndla. By doing so, we have revealed her status as a goddess, the fact that she did have a cult (while still lacking in details of practice, we know at least that she was sacrificed to), and some aspects of her nature within the Norse pantheon. We have seen how her myths would have fit into broader Norse culture at the time, and we have seen that insults thrown at her could be used to aid the suppression of her cult by the later Christians. Examining other poems and myths in this way would certainly lead to a deepening of one’s understanding of this goddess, who in addition to the above mentioned aspects was also connected to life, fertility, and even the earth and sea. More research on Freyja as a goddess would have to include these things as well as a look at Indo-European mythos in general, searching for relevant patterns. Still, this essay serves as an introduction to these issues and the scholarship surrounding them.
Notes
1. Hollander, Lee M., translator. Heimskringla. Ynglingasaga; Chapter 10, p. 14.
2. Larrington, Carolyne, translator. The Poetic Edda. The Song of Hyndla, p. 253.
3. Larrington, p. 253.
4. Ellis, Hilda Roderick. The Road to Hel: A Study of the Conception of the Dead in Old Norse Literature, p. 80.
5. Gundarsson, Kveldulfr. “Our Troth” by the Ring of Troth and Other True Folk, Chapter XVIII, p. 201.
6. Larrington, Grimnir’s Sayings, P. 53.
7. Ellis-Davidson, Hilda Roderick. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe, p. 50.
8. Ellis-Davidson, p. 50.
9. Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Norse Myths, p. XXX.
10. Larrington, The Song of Hyndla, p. 255.
11. Larrington, The Seeress’s Prophecy, p. 7.
12. Gundarsson, Chapter XVIII, p. 197.
13. Larrington, The Song of Hyndla, p. 259.
14. Anderson, Rasmus. Norse Mythology, p. 366.
15. Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings, p. 61.
16. Larrington, The Song of Hyndla, p. 254.
17. Larrington, The Sayings of the High One, p. 35.
Bibliography
Anderson, Rasmus. Norse Mythology; or The Religion of Our Forefathers, Scott,
Foresman and Company, Chicago, 1907.
Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Norse Myths, Pantheon Books, New York, 1980.
Ellis, Hilda Roderick. The Road to Hel: A Study of the Conception of the Dead in Old
Norse Literature, Greenwood Press, New York, 1968.
Ellis-Davidson, Hilda Roderick. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early
Scandinavian and Celtic Religions, Syracuse University Press, New York, 1988.
Gundarsson, Kveldulfr Hagan, editor. “Our Troth” by the Ring of Troth and Other True Folk, Ars Obscura, Washington, 1993.
Larrington, Carolyne, translator. The Poetic Edda, Oxford University Press, New York,
1996.
Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings, Penguin Books, London, 1998.
Sturluson, Snorri. Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway (Lee M. Hollander, translator), University of Texas Press, Austin, 2002.
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